The prevalence of brain injury in the United States is alarming as it is the second leading cause of disability in the country. Often referred to as the silent epidemic, approximately 3.17- 5.3 million Americans suffer from traumatic brain injuries, another 4.7 million have brain injuries from strokes, and another 500,000 have cerebral palsy (brain injury due to an event of oxygen deprivation). Causes of brain injury that may give rise to a medical malpractice lawsuit are further described below:

Brain Injury from Birth: a medical malpractice lawsuit may arise may when a child’s brain is negligently deprived of oxygen during pregnancy, labor and delivery. This may result in the child later developing cerebral palsy, mental retardation, seizures, blindness, deafness, and learning disabilities. Oxygen deprivation that injures a baby’s brain may arise from any of the following events:

*Compression of the umbilical cord during delivery
*Maternal Infection present during the pregnancy or delivery
*Placental abruption or uterine rupture prior to birth
*Maternal high blood pressure during the pregnancy (preclampsia)
*Breeched vaginal position of the baby (feet first rather than head first)
*Improper administration or doasage of epidural or labor inducing drugs during the delivery
*Failure to timely perform an emergency c-section
*Fetal macrosomia (oversized baby) unable to navigate the birth canal 

Brain Injury in Adults and Children: a medical malpractice lawsuit may arise as a result of errors in diagnosis and treatment of a serious medical condition. A few of the causes of brain injury in children and adults that may involve medical malpractice include:

*Medication errors
*Anesthesia errors
*Surgical errors
*Radiology errors 
*Emergency room errors
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of heart attack or cardiac arrest
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of a stroke, aneurysm, or blood clot
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of meningitis or encephalitis
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of a spreading infection or abscess
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of internal bleeding
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of hydrocephalus 
*Delay in diagnosis/treatment of diabetes/diabetic coma/insulin shock

In addition to the above mentioned causes of brain injury, many other errors involving patient treatment and care may give rise to a lawsuit.  One of the most common causes occurs when a hospital patient or nursing home patient falls (due to inadequate protective measures) and the patient suffers a traumatic brain injury.  In fact, falls are the leading cause of traumatic brain injury in our country surpassing even motor vehicle accidents. For a detailed guide to the incidence, prevalence, and epidemiology of brain injury, seeEssential Brain Injury Guide prepared under the auspices of the Brain Injury Association of America.     

One of the first steps in evaluating brain injury is diagnostic imaging. Imaging refers to various methods of viewing the structures and processes residing in the brain. Some of the more familiar modalities are CT (or CAT) scans, which use X-rays to evaluate intracranial structures. MRI, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, uses magnetic fields to illustrate the brain. However, in cases of traumatic brain injury (TBI), more advanced methods may be needed for proper diagnosis.

An MRI machine can use special software to perform a brain scan called Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI). This scan detects the diffusion of water across brain cells and highlights certain areas that may be associated with injury. These injuries may not be apparent on conventional MRI’s.

PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography) measures uptake and metabolism of glucose from a small radioactive “tagged” sample injected into the patient.  The scanner monitors this sample as the brain utilizes it. The metabolic uptake and usage may differ in patients who have suffered a brain injury. This helps define the extent and type of injury.

In SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography), the tagged sample is not absorbed or utilized in the brain cells. Instead, it remains in the blood stream and demonstrates the blood movement or perfusion through the brain. Areas of brain injury or damage may not have normal blood flow so the SPECT scan helps define these areas.

Brain injuries can result from medical malpractice. A baby may suffer birth trauma during labor and delivery. A child may have a concussion or sports injury misdiagnosed or improperly evaluated by a physician. An individual injured in a car accident may not have the indicated testing done by the emergency room. Although scientific progress in imaging studies has improved the ability to diagnose and evaluate brain injuries, these tests need to be utilized in the appropriate situations so patient results and outcomes can improve.

There are approximately 12,000 new cases of spinal cord compression annually in the United States with the average age of victims being 39.5 years old. Causes of spinal cord compression include trauma (such as auto accidents, falls, sports injury, epidural injection), spinal abscess, tumor, hematoma or blood clot, ruptured or herniated disk, and spinal stenosis. . Early symptoms may include the start of loss of movement or feeling in the arms or legs, back pain, and the loss of bowel or bladder function or control. Spinal cord compression of sudden onset constitutes a medical emergency, as the longer the duration of symptoms before cord pressure relief is obtained by surgical intervention (laminectomy), the greater the chance of permanent injury. Diagnosis is by clinical exam and other testing such as X-ray, CT, and MRI. MRI is usually the most accurate study to detect spinal cord compression as details of both bony and soft tissue abnormalities in the spinal column may be visualized. MRI may also be the preferred study if spinal cord injury occurs during pregnancy as MRI offers reduced radiation exposure to the fetus. However, after an accident, traction devices to immobilize the spine and life support equipment may preclude the use of MRI.

The spinal column is comprised in descending order of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral areas. The actual spinal cord ends at the level of L-1. Below the level of L-1, the cord branches into a bundle of spinal nerve roots from L-1 through L-5 and S-1 through S-5 that resembles a horses tail referred to as the cauda equina. When the nerve roots of the cauda equina are compressed permanent neurogenic injury may occur. This may be referred to as cauda equina syndrome (CES). Causes of compression of these nerve roots include the same types of causes as listed above for spinal cord compression. Symptoms of early onset of cauda equina syndrome include numbness in the groin (saddle anesthesia), loss of bowel or bladder function or control, weakness in the legs, and absence of ankle reflexes. Early diagnosis and treatment of CES is important as the longer the duration of symptoms, the more likely permanent neurological injury will occur such as paralysis and incontinence. Cauda equina syndrome of sudden onset is a medical emergency and treatment generally involves surgical decompression of the affected nerve roots. A laminectomy may be performed to relieve pressure on the nerve root in cases where there is a herniated or ruptured disk, hematoma, abscess, or tumor.

In spinal cord and nerve root compression cases involving sudden onset of neurological symptoms, medical malpractice may arise when there has been an unreasonable delay in diagnosis and prompt surgical intervention by the doctors or hospital. Allegations of medical malpractice may also include a failure to diagnose and treat a vertebral fracture of the neck or back that required traction or immobilization which was not performed, thereby allowing pathological movement that resulted in spinal cord compression.

Amputation is the surgical removal of all or part of an extremity. The most common amputation surgery is above or below the knee.  The indications for leg amputation include severe trauma, significant tumor in the bone or muscle, lack of blood circulation due to peripheral arterial disease, worsening or uncontrollable infection, failed management of acute compartment syndrome, failed management of Charcot’s degenerative osteoarthropathy, or debilitating extremity paralysis from infection or pressure-related complications. Failute to timely diagnose and treat infection, tumor, pressure sores, vascular disease, compartment syndrome, and Charcot’s all may result in the unneccessary amputation of a leg and give rise to allegations of medical malpractice against negligent health care practitioners.

The amputation procedure varies depending on the extremity undergoing the operation. To determine the operation site and the amount of tissue to remove, the surgeon relies on the following factors: the patient’s pulse, skin temperature, areas of reddened skin, and sensitivity to touch in the affected extremity. The presence of a palpable pulse proximal to the level of amputation is a positive predictor for successful healing; however, the absence of a pulse does not necessarily reflect future wound healing failure. The level of the amputation is based on the extent of the damaged tissue, the healing potential of the area, and the rehabilitation potential of the patient. In addition to a thorough clinical examination, objective tests such as ankle pressures, toe pressures, transcutaneous oxygen measurements, and skin perfusion pressures are useful.

The preoperative evaluation and preparation involves medical risk assessment, nutrition assessment, prosthetic and rehab consultation, and possibly a psychological consultation. The diseased tissue is removed along with any crushed bone and the maximal amount of healthy tissue is left behind. The blood vessels and nerves in the surrounding area are sealed off. Following the amputation, the site can be left open due the possibility of further amputation or covered with skin flaps and closed. The remaining muscles in the area are shaped so the end of the limb can be fitted for prosthesis, also known as an artificial limb.

Thromboprophylaxis is recommended for all patients undergoing major lower extremity amputation because patients are at high risk for thromboembolism, the blocking of a blood vessel by a particle that has separated from a blood clot at the formation site. Antibiotic prophylaxis is typically recommended within one hour of skin incision for lower extremity amputation due to high risk for surgical site infection.

Generally, the patient undergoes physical rehabilitation soon after surgery and practice with the prosthesis can begin 10-14 days after surgery. The patient’s postoperative outcome is dependent upon preoperative functional status, comorbidities, and the level of amputation. Wound healing must be monitored and dressing changes performed. Patients with advanced diabetes, significant heart disease, or serious infection are at a greater risk of complications from the procedure. Possible complications include infection, joint contracture, necrosis, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, hematoma, and wound opening. In addition, patients may experience phantom pain, a sense of pain in the amputated limb described as burning aching, or electric. Other causes of pain such as ischemia, infection, neuroma, or pressure related wounds should be excluded before determining the diagnosis as phantom pain.

Lumbar puncture is a procedure performed in the lower back area, where a needle is inserted between two vertebrae to remove a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The patient flexes his/her back to widen the spaces between the vertebrae so it is easier for the physician to access the region. The back is washed with antiseptic soap or iodine and covered with a sterile sheet. A local anesthetic is used to numb the area and then a thin hollow needle is inserted through the spinal membrane and into the spinal canal. During this portion of the procedure, the patient generally feels pressure. The CSF pressure is measured, a small amount of fluid is removed, and the pressure is measured again. The needle is removed and the site is bandaged. The total procedure takes about 45 minutes.

Lumbar puncture is used to collect CSF for analysis to help in diagnosing conditions such as subarachnoid hemorrhage (typically caused by ruptured aneurysm or traumatic brain injury), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes around the brain), and cancers of the brain or spinal cord. Lumbar Puncture may also be utilized to inject anesthetic medications, chemotherapeutic drugs, contrast material, or radioactive substances into CSF.

Lumbar Puncture may be used to identify increased or decreased CSF pressure.  Increased CSF pressure can be caused by increased intracranial pressure as is seen with traumatic brain injury, ruptured aneurysm, and sometimes hydrocephalus. On the other hand, decreased CSF pressure can be caused by spinal cord tumor, shock, fainting, or diabetic coma.  Normal CSF appears clear and colorless. When an infection is present, the CSF may look cloudy and be yellow or pink in color. Infection may be suspected if there is an increased level of white blood cells and/or protein. Increased CSF glucose indicates hyperglycemia whereas decreased CSF glucose may reflect hypoglycemia, bacterial or fungal infection, tuberculosis, or meningitis. If tumor cells are detected, the patient may have cancer in the brain, spinal cord, or CSF.  If there are increased gamma globulin levels, the patient may be suffering from multiple sclerosis, neurosyphilis, or Guillan-Barre syndrome. The analysis of the CSF by the lab and the measuring of CSF pressure recorded from the lumbar puncture help in determining a diagnosis in many serious clinical situations.